Long-term soft drink and aspartame intake induces hepatic damage via dysregulation of adipocytokines and alteration of the lipid profile and antioxidant status

    Long-term soft drink and aspartame intake induces hepatic damage via dysregulation of adipocytokines and alteration of the lipid profile and antioxidant status Mohamed A Lebda, Hossam G Tohamy, Yasser S El-Sayed PII: DOI: Reference:

S0271-5317(17)30096-9 doi: 10.1016/j.nutres.2017.04.002 NTR 7740

To appear in:

Nutrition Research

Received date: Revised date: Accepted date:

30 January 2017 14 March 2017 13 April 2017

Please cite this article as: Lebda Mohamed A, Tohamy Hossam G, El-Sayed Yasser S, Long-term soft drink and aspartame intake induces hepatic damage via dysregulation of adipocytokines and alteration of the lipid profile and antioxidant status, Nutrition Research (2017), doi: 10.1016/j.nutres.2017.04.002

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Long-term soft drink and aspartame intake induces hepatic damage

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and antioxidant status

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via dysregulation of adipocytokines and alteration of the lipid profile

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Mohamed A Lebdaaa, Hossam G Tohamyb, Yasser S El-Sayedc Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Alexandria University,

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Edfina 22758, Egypt

Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Alexandria University, Edfina

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22758, Egypt

Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,

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Damanhour University, Damanhour 22511, Egypt

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Email addresses:

MAL: [email protected];

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[email protected]

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HGT: [email protected] YSE: [email protected]; [email protected]

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Corresponding author: Mohamed A. Lebda, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Alexandria University, Edfina 22758, Egypt. Tel: +20-10-08479197; E. mail address: [email protected]; [email protected]

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Abbreviations ALP, Alkaline phosphatase; ALT, Alanine aminotransferase;

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ANOVA, Analysis of variance; AST, Aspartate aminotransferase;

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CAT, Catalase;

DTNB, 5.5-dithiobis 2 nitro-benzoic acid;

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GPx, Glutathione peroxidase; GSH, Reduced glutathione;

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H2O2, Hydrogen peroxide;

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GST, Glutathione-S-transferase; H&E, hematoxylin and eosin;

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CDNB, 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene;

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HDL-c, High-density lipoprotein-cholesterol; HFCS, High-fructose corn syrup;

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HSCs, Hepatic satellite cells;

LDL-c, Low-density lipoprotein–cholesterol; MDA, Malondialdehyde; NIH, National Institutes of Health; PBS, Phosphate buffer saline; PPAR, Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors; SEM, Standard error of means; SOD, Superoxide dismutase; TAG, Triacylglycerol;

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VLDL-c, Very-low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Abstract Dietary intake of fructose corn syrup in sweetened beverages is associated with the

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development of metabolic syndrome and obesity. We hypothesized that inflammatory cytokines play a role in lipid storage and induction of liver injury. Therefore, this study intended to explore

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the expression of adipocytokines and its link to hepatic damage. Rats were assigned to drink water, cola soft drinks (free access) and aspartame (240 mg/kg body weight/day orally) for two months.

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The lipid profiles, liver antioxidants and pathology, and mRNA expression of adipogenic

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cytokines were evaluated. Subchronic intake of soft drinks or aspartame substantially induced hyperglycemia and hypertriacylglycerolemia, as represented by increased serum glucose,

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triacylglycerol, very-low-density lipoprotein- and very-low-density lipoprotein - cholesterol, with obvious visceral fatty deposition. These metabolic syndromes were associated with the

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upregulation of leptin and downregulation of adiponectin and peroxisome proliferator activated

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receptor-γ (PPAR-γ) expression. Moreover, alterations in serum transaminases accompanied by hepatic oxidative stress involving induction of malondialdehyde and reduction of superoxide

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dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione levels are indicative of oxidative hepatic damage. Several cytoarchitecture alterations were detected in the liver, including degeneration, infiltration, necrosis, and fibrosis, predominantly with aspartame. These data suggest that long-term intake of soft drinks or aspartame-induced hepatic damage may be mediated by the induction of hyperglycemia, lipid accumulation, and oxidative stress with the involvement of adipocytokines. Keywords: Sweetened beverages; Aspartame; Metabolic syndrome; Adipocytokines; Oxidative stress; Gene expression

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT 1. Introduction The consumption of sugar-sweetened soft drinks or beverages is very common all over the

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world [1]. The main constituents of Coca-Cola are phosphoric acid, glucose/fructose sugar (high

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fructose corn syrup) or artificial sweeteners, and caffeine, but their concentrations vary among different types of Cola [2]. Acesulfame K, aspartame, and cyclamates are the main artificial

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sweeteners that replace glucose/fructose sugar in beverages [3]. A direct relationship was reported

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between soft drink consumption and the incidence of obesity, type II diabetes mellitus, and metabolic syndrome [4, 5]. Previous researchers have indicated that increased consumption of

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fructose corn syrup in calorically sweetened beverages is associated with obesity [6]. Highfructose diets produce hypertriglyceridemia, hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance, impaired

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glucose tolerance, and increased body weight [7]. The weight gain promoting effect of fructose

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can be attributed to the lack of insulin secretion and leptin production with disturbances in satiety [6, 8]. Moreover, Prabhakar, Reeta [9] found that the administration of fructose to rats produced

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significant hypertriglyceridemia and impaired glucose tolerance as well as insulin resistance

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associated with a reduction in peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPAR-α/γ). Lozano, Van der Werf [10] reported that rats fed high-fructose beverages had a transient increase in leptin after two months, but the level of adiponectin was decreased in obese subjects [11]. A few studies suggest a lipogenic effect of sweetened-beverages, but whether aspartame

2. can induce obesity is not clear and further study is needed. Our

hypothesis is that, sweetened beverages and aspartame contribute to obesity. To test out hypothesis, we investigated the consequences of both sweetened beverages and aspartame on the expression of adipogenic cytokines (leptin, adiponectin, PPAR-γ) as well as on the serum lipid profile and hepatic antioxidant pathways in the rat. Our approach is a molecular-biochemical

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT interaction study to better understand how the intake of beverages is associated with obesity and increased body weight.Methods and materials

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2.1. Animals

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Thirty male 6-8 weeks of age Wistar strain Albino rats, weighing 187.67±15.14 g, were

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purchased from the Faculty of Science, Alexandria University. The animals were maintained under controlled environmental conditions with a 12 h light-dark cycle and had free access to water and

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food that was provided as follows: moisture (8.3%), crude protein (21.7%), crude fat (3.7%), ash (5.7%), crude fiber (5.2%), nitrogen free extract (53.3%), calcium (1.1%), phosphorous

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96 (0.9%) and vitamins (0.2%). The diet was formulated to meet all of the nutritional requirements of growing rats, including minerals, vitamins, protein, essential amino acids,

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essential fatty acids, and metabolizable energy [12]. This food was formulated to meet all of the

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nutritional requirements of growing rats, including minerals, vitamins, protein, essential amino acids and metabolizable energy [12]. The animal experiment was carried out in accordance with

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the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Guidelines for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals,

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and the study protocol was approved by the committee of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Alexandria University.

2.2. Chemicals and reagents Aspartame (N-L-α-aspartyl-L-phenylalanine-1-methyl ester, C14H18N2O5) was purchased from Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, MO, USA. Pepsi was obtained from a local market in Egypt. The QIAamp RNeasy Mini kit and QuantiTect SYBR Green PCR Master Mix were obtained from Qiagen, Germany, GmbH. Oligonucleotide primers were purchased from Biobasic Co., Canada. Biochemical assay kits were obtained from Biodiagnostic Co., Cairo, Egypt. All

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT other reagents, including those for analytical, high-performance liquid chromatography, were of the best available pharmaceutical grade.

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2.3. Experimental design

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Rats were allocated randomly into three groups (10 rats per group) as follows: Group I: the

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control group, allowed to drink water ad libitum. Group II: aspartame group, intragastrically intubated with aspartame, 240 mg/kg body weight (6 times the average daily dose in humans as

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rodents have higher metabolic rates than humans [13]). Group III: soft drink group, allowed to freely drink Coca-cola beverages according to Alkhedaide, Soliman [14] for two consecutive

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months. CO2 bubbles were removed from beverages by vigorous hand shaking, and the bottles were left open for 30 min. At the end of the experiment, the rats were anesthetized with

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ketamine/xylazine (7.5:10 mg/kg, 1 mg/kg i.p.). Blood was then withdrawn from the inner canthus

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of the eye into a clean tube for serum separation. Five animals from each group were randomly selected

and

then

immediately

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euthanized by the approved protocol. The adipose tissue and livers were collected and washed

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with ice-cold phosphate buffer saline (PBS) and then stored at −80 ºC until further analyses. The homogenate (10% w/v) of the liver tissue was prepared in a Teflon-glass tissue homogenizer using ice-cold PBS (100 mM, pH 7.4) and centrifuged separately in a cooling centrifuge at 705 ×g for 10 min. The supernatant was used to analyze the oxidative stress parameters. 2.4. Serum hepatic biomarkers and lipid profiles measurements Following the collection of blood samples, sera were separated by centrifugation at 2,500 ×g for 10 min at room temperature. Using commercially available colorimetric assay kits, the serum activities of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) were spectrophotometrically estimated as the decreasing in absorbance due to oxidation of NADH to

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT NAD by pyruvate and oxaloacetate, respectively [15]. The activity of alkaline phosphatase (ALP) was spectrophotometrically measured following hydrolysis of p-nitrophenyl phosphate into p-

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nitrophenol in alkaline medium at 405 nm [16]. Glucose concentration was measured by the

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glucose oxidase-peroxidase test, which forms a more stable pink-coloured product, its intensity measured at 540 nm [17]. Total cholesterol content was measured by cholesterol oxidase-

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peroxidase (CHOD-PAP test) [18]. Triacylglycerol (TAG) concentration was determined

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according to the method of Bucolo and David [19]. High-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-c) was estimated by HDL-precipitating reagent [20]. Low-density lipoprotein–cholesterol (LDL-c)

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and very low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (VLDL-c) were calculated using Friedwald’s

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equations [21] as follow: VLDL-c = TAG/5, and LDL-c = Total cholesterol – (HDL-c + VLDL-c). 2.5. Hepatic oxidative and antioxidative indices measurements

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Lipid peroxidation was measured by estimating malondialdehyde (MDA), an intermediary product of lipid peroxidation, using thiobarbituric acid and expressed as nmol/g tissue [22].

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Superoxide dismutase (SOD) was conveniently assayed using the method of interference of free

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radicals in auto-oxidation of pyrogallol and is expressed as IU/min/g tissue [23]. Catalase (CAT) was assayed with standard hydrogen peroxide (0.2 M H2O2) as the substrate. The CAT activity was terminated at intervals of 0, 15, 30, and 60 s by the addition of potassium dichromate-acetic acid reagent and is expressed as IU/min/g tissue [24]. Glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity was assayed by its ability to utilize standard glutathione in the presence of a specific amount of hydrogen peroxide (1 mM H2O2) and is expressed as IU/min/g tissue [25]. Glutathione-Stransferase (GST) was estimated by the method of Habig, Pabst [26]. The activity of GST in tissues is expressed as μmoles of 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB) utilized/min/g tissue. Reduced glutathione (GSH) was measured by its reaction with 5.5-dithiobis 2 nitro-benzoic acid

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT (DTNB) to form a compound that absorbs at 412 nm [27]. The level of GSH is expressed as μmol of GSH/g tissue.

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2.6. RNA extraction and gene expression

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Approximately 100 mg of the adipose tissue sample was added to 600 µl of RLT buffer

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(containing 10 μl of β-mercaptoethanol/ml). For homogenization of the samples, tubes were placed into adaptor sets that were fixed into the clamps of a Qiagen Tissue Lyser. Disruption was

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performed by a 2 min high-speed (30 Hz) shaking step. One volume of 70% ethanol was added to the cleared lysate, and the steps were completed according to the Purification of Total RNA from

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Animal Tissues Protocol of the QIAamp RNeasy Mini kit (Qiagen, Germany, GmbH). Real-time RT-PCR was performed using QuantiTect SYBR Green PCR Master Mix (Qiagen, Germany,

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GmbH). A 25-µL reaction for each examined gene was prepared from 12.5 µL of the 2×

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QuantiTect SYBR Green PCR Master Mix (Qiagen, Germany, GmbH), 0.25 µL of RevertAid Reverse Transcriptase (Thermo Fisher), 0.5 µL of 20 pmol of each primer, 7.25 µL of water, and 4

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µL of RNA template. The primer sequences of the target genes are described in Table 1. The

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reaction was performed in a Stratagene MX3005P Real-Time PCR Machine. Amplification curves and Ct values were determined using the Agilent MX3005P software. To estimate the variation of gene expression in the RNA of the different samples, the Ct of each sample was compared with that of the positive control group according to the “ΔΔCt” method as stated by Yuan, Reed [28]. 2.7. Liver histopathology Liver specimens were collected from 5 animals per group, fixed in phosphate buffered formalin 10% and embedded in paraffin. They were used for the preparation of 5 μm sections stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) following a standard protocol for histopathological assessment under a light microscope. The lesion scoring system was assessed as follows: (0) absence of the

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT lesion= 0%, (+) mild= 5-25%, (++) moderate= 26-50% and (+++) severe≥ 50% of the examined tissue sections.

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2.8. Statistical analyses

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Values are shown as the mean values ± standard error of mean (SEM). To evaluate differences

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among the treatment groups, one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by post hoc Duncan's multiple range tests were used. The sample size was calculated using the power

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procedure for one-way ANOVA, considering P <.05 with a power of 80%. Treatment differences

was used for all statistical analyses.

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3. Results

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were considered significant at P < .5. SPSS version 22.0 for Windows (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA)

3.1. Body weight

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Both soft drinks and aspartame intake groups were fed their respective diets ad libitum.

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(Table 2).

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However, following 8 weeks of intake, body weights were comparable (P < .05) among the groups

3.2. Assessment of liver function biomarkers The activities of the serum enzymes ALT, AST, and ALP were measured as biomarkers of liver function. The data presented in Table 3 shows that the serum AST in aspartame intake rats (96.68 ± 1.51 U/L) and soft drink intake rats (106.80 ± 4.77 U/L) was significantly (P < .05) increased compared to control rats (73.94 ± 2.85 U/L). In respect to serum ALT, no significant (P > .05) changes were found in the aspartame-treated group, but a significant (P < .05) decrease (40%) was evident in the soft drink intake rats compared to the control. Serum ALP activity was significantly (P < .05) reduced in animals that received aspartame (335.46 ± 26.66 U/L) and very

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT significantly (P < .01) reduced in those that received soft drinks (242.62 ± 17.49 U/L) versus controls (417.88 ± 14.08 U/L).

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3.3. Serum lipid profile and glucose level

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The results provided in Table 3 reveal that rats that received aspartame had a significant

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increase (P < .05) in the serum level of glucose (97.28 ± 1.23 mg/dL), TAG (117.57 ± 7.45 mg/dL), LDL-c (50.75 ± 4.35 mg/dL), and VLDL-c (23.65 ± 2.37 mg/dL) relative to the controls

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(87.12 ± 2.38, 95.12 ± 7.34, 41.67 ± 5.12, and 18.54 ± 3.87 mg/dL, respectively), with nonsignificant (P > .05) changes in the serum cholesterol and HDL-c levels. Interestingly,

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administration of soft drinks resulted in the same effects on the corresponding serum lipid profile and glucose level, with the exception of a significant increase (P < .05) in the serum cholesterol

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level (147.43 ± 11.51 mg/dL) compared to controls (115.23 ± 9.11 mg/dL).

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3.4. Liver lipid peroxidation and antioxidative indices

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MDA, GSH concentrations and antioxidant enzymatic activities (GPx, GST, CAT, and SOD) are shown in Table 4. Both soft drinks and aspartame administration had similar results concerning

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the oxidative/antioxidative indices. A significant increase (P < .05) in the hepatic MDA concentration (18 and 13%), significant (P < .05) decrease in the hepatic GSH concentration (35 and 35%), and decreased activities of GPx (26 and 23%), CAT (14 and 12%) and SOD (14 and 14%) were detected in rats that received soft drink and aspartame, respectively, compared to controls. However, the activity of the GST enzyme was non-significantly (P > .05) decreased in the treated groups compared to the control group. 3.5. mRNA expression of leptin, adiponectin, and PPAR-γ The mRNA expression of adipogenic proteins was measured using real-time PCR in adipose tissues (Fig. 1). The results showed that the relative mRNA expression of leptin was up-regulated

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT (P < .05) in the adipose tissue of rats that received soft drinks or aspartame compared to controls. Meanwhile, the intake of soft drinks or aspartame down-regulated (P < .05) the mRNA expression

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of adiponectin and PPAR-γ cytokines compared to controls. 3.6. Liver histopathological findings

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Regular histological features of the livers in the control group showed well-formed central veins, sinusoidal spaces and cord-like arrays of hepatocytes around the central vein (Fig. 2A). The

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hepatic histoarchitectural findings in the soft drink group included congestion of the portal vein and edema, characterized by faint eosinophilic albuminous fluid in the portal area. Additionally,

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mild to moderate fatty changes in hepatocytes, characterized by sharp-edged vacuoles, flattened nuclei and a signet-ring appearance were also seen (Fig. 2B1, Table 5). Moreover, moderate

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bloodless sinusoidal dilatation, irregular appearance, and focal hepatic necrosis with inflammatory

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cells infiltration were observed (Fig. 2B2, Table 5).

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The encountered hepatic lesions in the aspartame group showed severe hydropic degeneration of hepatocytes (Table 5), which was characterized by swollen cells and clear fluids that replace the

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cytoplasm, but an unaffected nucleus in terms of shape or location. Additionally, intense inflammatory cell aggregation in the portal area, congestion of the portal vein with focal hepatic necrosis and infiltration of inflammatory cells were observed (Fig. 2C1, Table 5). Moreover, there were hemorrhages characterized by extravasation of RBCs from the blood vessels that replaced necrotic hepatocytes (Fig. 2C2, Table 5).

4. Discussion In this study, both sweetened beverages and aspartame caused visceral adiposity, impaired glucose tolerance and lipid profile, perturbated the hepatic antioxidants/oxidant status, and disturbed adipogenic cytokines. Regarding the impact of soft drinks on metabolic syndrome and

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT obesity, serum concentrations of glucose, TAG, VLDL-c, and LDL-c were substantially increased with obvious fatty deposition in the viscera despite no change in body weight. Fructose-containing

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beverages increased hepatic fatty acid synthesis and de novo lipogenesis, leading to increased

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serum TAG [29, 30] and VLDL-c [31], which have been linked to ectopic fat deposition in adipose and hepatic tissues. This may contribute to the visceral adiposity and hepatic fatty changes

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observed in our histopathological findings. The hyperglycemic effect of soft drinks was consistent

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with the results of Babacanoglu, Yildirim [32] who demonstrated that serum glucose, insulin, and TAG concentrations were increased following consumption of 10 and 20% high-fructose corn

syndrome

(hyperglycemia,

and

hypertriacylglycerolemia),

changes

in

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Metabolic

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syrup (HFCS)-containing solutions for a period of 12 weeks.

adipocytokines mRNA expression in fat tissues, and oxidative stress in the liver tissues were

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associated with the consumption of soft drinks. Adiponectin, an adipocytokine that is expressed

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and secreted by adipose tissue, has anti-inflammatory, antiatherogenic, and insulin sensitizing activities [33, 34]. Leptin is considered to be a pro-inflammatory agent and a potential hepatic

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fibrosis mediator [35]. PPAR-γ is a transcription factor that plays a central role in adipocyte biology and regulates adiponectin gene expression, processing, and secretion [36]. The impairment of the expression of these adipocytokines by soft drink consumption contributed to the hepatic inflammatory conditions and even fibrosis observed in our study. Hyperleptinemia played a role in the liver fibrogenic process by activating hepatic satellite cells (HSCs), a critical step in the fibrogenic process [37], and down-regulating PPAR-γ expression at the mRNA and protein levels, which reduced the promoter activity of the PPAR-γ gene in HSCs [38]. Furthermore, adiponectin (anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic adipocytokine) was decreased with adiposity [39], suggesting a damaging effect of soft drinks in the liver. This hypothesis was proven by the severe infiltration of inflammatory cells and the hydropic degeneration seen in the liver histopathology following the

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT enhancement of AST with low ALT activity. However, the reduction in serum ALP activity may be attributed, in part, to a zinc deficiency following soft drink or aspartame administration (data

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not published), which negatively affects ALP activity [40]. It has been previously reported that a

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massive intake of cola soft drinks for two months significantly reduced serum ALP in ovariectomized rats [41]. Another effect of soft drink-induced obesity on liver injury is oxidative

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stress. Sil and Chakraborti [5] reported that rats fed a high fructose diet for six weeks had

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increased lipid peroxidation and decreased GSH levels. Interestingly, Pandey, Shihabudeen [42] revealed that a higher leptin level was associated with reduced antioxidant activities and increased

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lipid peroxidation in obese diabetic patients. This study demonstrated a relationship between fructose-containing soft drinks, adipocytokines, oxidative/antioxidative status and induction of

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hepatic inflammation, necrosis, and fibrosis.

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In terms of the effect of aspartame on adipocytokine expression, similar results were also

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observed with soft drinks. No studies have investigated these effects, which may be due to the lipogenic activity of aspartame. Both aspartame and soft drink consumption induced

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hyperglycemia, hypertriacylglycerolemia, and abdominal adiposity. This result was consistent with [43], who revealed increased concentrations of glucose, cholesterol, and LDL-c as well as decreased

HDL-c

following

aspartame

treatment.

Hypercholesterolemia

and

hypertriacylglycerolemia were associated with oxidative damage to tissues and the induction of chronic diseases, such as diabetes, atherosclerosis, and chronic liver disease [44]. The increased serum AST observed after aspartame oral drenching was indicative of hepatic damage and necrosis corresponding to our pathologic findings. Similar results were reported earlier by AbdelSalam, Salem [45] and Choudhary and Devi [46]. Subchronic consumption of aspartame significantly increased lipid peroxidation products in the brain, liver, and kidneys with a concomitant depletion of enzymatic (GST, GPx, SOD, and CAT) and non-enzymatic (GSH)

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT antioxidants levels [47]. This finding was consistent with the result of the present study, explaining another mechanism of hepatic damage induced by aspartame other than lipid

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alterations. Alwaleedi [48] reported that a 60-day aspartame treatment significantly increased lipid

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peroxidation with a remarkable reduction in antioxidant status in the liver and kidney tissues of rats. Aspartame-induced oxidative stress may be attributed to its methanol content, a hallmark of

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aspartame toxicity [49, 50], and the free radicals produced during aspartame metabolism that cause

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lipid peroxidation and depletion of antioxidant enzymes [47].

One concern that should be taken into consideration is that the results are dependent on the

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quality of information, including the explanation of the effects of soft drinks on adipocytokines,

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lipid profile, and antioxidant status. Because we cannot attribute these effects to particular ingredients in soft drinks, further studies are needed to explore the effect of each ingredient

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separately.

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In conclusion, over-expression of a pro-inflammatory adipocytokine (leptin) and downregulated expression of an anti-inflammatory adipocytokine (adiponectin) that were induced

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following 60 days of soft drink consumption or aspartame oral drenching support our hypothesis on the role of adipocytokines in the induction of hepatic injury besides lipid accumulation, oxidative stress and alteration of the antioxidant status in Wistar albino rats. The mechanisms responsible for the soft drink or aspartame toxicities could be mediated through induction of hyperglycemia, lipid accumulation, and an oxidant/antioxidant imbalance with the involvement of adipocytokines in hepatic inflammation, fatty changes, and necrosis. Based on these preclinical study results, an excess intake of soft drinks or aspartame artificial sweetener could induce hepatic lipogenesis in association with impaired adipocytokines expressions.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Acknowledgments All of the authors declare that they have no competing interests to disclose. This research did

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not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit

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sectors. The authors are solely responsible for the design and conduct of the study and the collection, management, analysis, and interpretation of the data, and the preparation of the

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manuscript. All authors had full access to the data and take responsibility for its integrity. All

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authors have read and agreed with the manuscript as written.

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[21] Levy FRI, Fridickson DS. Friedwald formula. In: Bauer JD, editor. Clinical Laboratory Methods. 9th ed. St. Louis: Mosby; 1982. p. 555. [22] Ohkawa H, Ohishi N, Yagi K. Assay for lipid peroxides in animal tissues by thiobarbituric acid reaction. Anal Biochem. 1979;95:351-8. [23] Marklund S, Marklund G. Involvement of the superoxide anion radical in the autoxidation of pyrogallol and a convenient assay for superoxide dismutase. Eur J Biochem. 1974;47:469-74. [24] Sinha AK. Colorimetric assay of catalase. Anal Biochem. 1972;47:389-94. [25] Rotruck JT, Pope AL, Ganther HE, Swanson AB, Hafeman DG, Hoekstra WG. Selenium: biochemical role as a component of glutathione peroxidase. Science. 1973;179:588-90.

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[27] Moron MS, Depierre JW, Mannervik B. Levels of glutathione, glutathione reductase and

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glutathione S-transferase activities in rat lung and liver. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1979;582:6778.

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[28] Yuan JS, Reed A, Chen F, Stewart CN, Jr. Statistical analysis of real-time PCR data. BMC

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induces a wide range of genes with distinct shift in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in fed and fasted rat liver. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2008;1782:341-8. [32] Babacanoglu C, Yildirim N, Sadi G, Pektas MB, Akar F. Resveratrol prevents high-fructose corn syrup-induced vascular insulin resistance and dysfunction in rats. Food Chem Toxicol. 2013;60:160-7. [33] Ohashi K, Ouchi N, Matsuzawa Y. Anti-inflammatory and anti-atherogenic properties of adiponectin. Biochimie. 2012;94:2137-42. [34] El Husseny MW, Mamdouh M, Shaban S, Ibrahim Abushouk A, Zaki MM, Ahmed OM, et al. Adipokines: Potential therapeutic targets for vascular dysfunction in Type II diabetes mellitus and obesity. J Diabetes Res. 2017;2017:8095926.

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results in leptin expression. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1998;244:178-82.

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[38] Zhou Q, Guan W, Qiao H, Cheng Y, Li Z, Zhai X, et al. GATA binding protein 2 mediates leptin inhibition of PPARgamma1 expression in hepatic stellate cells and contributes to

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monoamine neurotransmitter levels in lipopolysaccharide-treated mice. Neurotox Res. 2012;21:245-55.

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[46] Choudhary AK, Devi RS. Effects of aspartame on hsp70, bcl-2 and bax expression in immune

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organs of Wistar albino rats. J Biomed Res. 2016;30:427-35. [47] Adaramoye OA, Akanni OO. Effects of long-term administration of aspartame on

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biochemical indices, lipid profile and redox status of cellular system of male rats. J Basic Clin

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[48] Alwaleedi S. Alterations in antioxidant defense system in hepatic and renal tissues of rats

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following aspartame intake. Journal of Applied Biology and Biotechnology. 2016:046-52. [49] Parthasarathy NJ, Kumar RS, Manikandan S, Devi RS. Methanol-induced oxidative stress in

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[50] Castro GD, Costantini MH, Delgado de Layno AM, Castro JA. Rat liver microsomal and nuclear activation of methanol to hydroxymethyl free radicals. Toxicol Lett. 2002;129:227-36.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Figures captions Figure 1 Relative mRNA expression patterns of adipocytokines in adipose tissues

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Data are expressed as the means ± SEM and were analyzed by one-way ANOVA followed

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by Duncan's post hoc test. Aspartame and soft drink intake correlated with up-regulated (*P

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< .05) leptin, adiponectin and PPAR-γ mRNA gene expression.

Figure 2 Photomicrograph of rat livers from the control, aspartame and soft drink groups

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stained with H&E (×200)

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(A) Liver from a control group rat showing a normal histological structure. (B) Liver from soft drink-receiving rats showing vacuolar degeneration of hepatocytes with

infiltration (arrows) (B2).

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fatty changes types (arrows) (B1), and focal hepatic necrosis with inflammatory cell

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(C) Liver from aspartame-receiving rats showing congestion of the portal vein (long arrow)

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and focal hepatic necrosis with inflammatory cells infiltration (short arrow) (C1), and hemorrhage with RBC extravasation from blood vessel (long arrow) that replaced necrotic

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hepatocytes (short arrows) (C2).

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Table 1. Primer sequences used for qRT-PCR. Primer (5'→3')

GenBank NM_007393.5

F: TCCTCCTGAGCGCAAGTACTCT R

GCTCAGTAACAGTCCGCCTAGA A

: NM_008493.3

F: CCTGTGGCTTTGGTCCTATCTG R :

Adiponecti

q

n

NM_009605.4

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Adipo

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* Housekeeping gene

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F: CATTTCTGCTCCACACTATGAA R

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AGGCAAGCTGGTGAGGATCTG

51

CGGGAAGGACTTTATGTATGCG

:

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Peroxisome NM_001127330. proliferator activated 2 receptor gamma

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PPARγ

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Leptin

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Lep

Annealin g temp. (°C) 55

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Gene descriptio n β-actin

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Gene symbo l Actb*

F: CTCCACCCAAGGAAACTTGT R :

CTGGTCCACATTTTTTTCCT

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ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Table 2. Effects of soft drink and aspartame intake on body weight in rats Soft drink

Aspartame

Initial body weight

186.82 ± 14.93

189.88 ± 16.44

188.54 ± 14.05

Final body weight after 2 months

346.58 ± 31.05

385.94 ± 27.42

359.56 ± 31.77

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Control

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Parameter

Data are expressed as the means ± SEM (n = 10 per group). No significant differences are

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indicated (one-way ANOVA followed by post hoc Duncan's multiple range test).

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Table 3. Effects of soft drinks and aspartame intake on liver function

Soft drink

AST (U/L)

73.94 ± 2.85

106.80 ± 4.77*

96.68 ± 1.51*

ALT (U/L)

31.54 ± 2.79

18.68 ± 1.09*

27.72 ± 1.18

ALP (U/L)

417.88 ± 14.08

242.62 ± 17.49**

335.46 ± 26.66*

87.12 ± 2.38

Total cholesterol (mg/dL)

115.23 ± 9.11

Triacylglycerol (mg/dL)

95.12 ± 7.34

HDL-c (mg/dL)

57.72 ± 5.67

LDL-c (mg/dL) VLDL-c (mg/dL)

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Glucose (mg/dL)

Aspartame

100.80 ± 3.35*

97.28 ± 1.23*

147.43 ± 11.51*

126.45 ± 13.21

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Parameter

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Control

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biomarkers, lipid profile and glucose concentration in rats

117.57 ± 7.45*

52.82 ± 8.23

54.87 ± 4.92

41.67 ± 5.12

73.45 ± 7.43*

50.75 ± 4.35*

18.54 ± 3.87

23.94 ± 3.87*

23.65 ± 2.37*

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118.39 ± 8.63*

Data are expressed as the means ± SEM (n = 10 per group). Significant differences are indicated

significantly

different

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(one-way ANOVA followed by post hoc Duncan's multiple range test). *P < .05, **P < .01 from

control.

AST,

aspartate

aminotransferase;

ALT,

alanine

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aminotransferase; ALP, alkaline phosphatase; HDL-c, high-density lipoprotein - cholesterol; LDL-

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c, low-density lipoprotein - cholesterol; VLDL-c, very low-density lipoprotein - cholesterol.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT Table 4. Effects of soft drinks and aspartame intake on hepatic oxidative/antioxidative indices in rats Soft drink

Aspartame

186 ± 12.45 47.65 ± 7.54 435.45 ± 23.54 159.23 ± 12.34 321.45 ± 26.43 589.23 ± 31.56

221 ± 13.76* 30.12 ± 7.31* 412.38 ± 21.56 119.54 ± 13.27* 278.39 ± 21.67* 508.92 ± 33.87*

211.65 ± 11.23* 31.48 ± 6.71* 421.67 ± 18.54 123.54 ± 11.43* 285.38 ± 19.45* 509.57 ± 29.56*

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Control

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Parameter MDA (nmol/g tissue) GSH (μmol/g tissue) GST (μmol/min/g tissue) GPx (IU/min/g tissue) CAT (IU/min/g tissue) SOD (IU/min/g tissue)

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Data are expressed as the means ± SEM (n = 5 per group). Significant differences are indicated (one-way ANOVA followed by post hoc Duncan's multiple range test). *P < .05 significantly

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different from control. MDA, malondialdehyde; GSH, reduced glutathione; GST, glutathione S-

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transferase; GPx, glutathione peroxidase; CAT, catalase; SOD, superoxide dismutase.

ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Table 5. Incidence† and severity‡ of hepatic histopathological lesions following soft drinks and aspartame intake in rats

0

2

Hemorrhage Hepatic necrosis with inflammatory cell infiltration Inflammatory cell infiltration in the portal area Edema in the portal area

5

0

3

1

3

1

2

3

Fatty changes

2

2

Bloodless sinusoidal dilatation

3

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IP

Moderate (++) 1

Severe (+++) 3

2

1

0

1

2

2

0

0

2

2

1

0

1

0

1

1

2

1

1

0

2

2

1

0

0

0

5

0

0

0

1

0

5

0

0

0

1

0

5

0

0

0

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1

Severe (+++) 0

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Congestion of blood vessels

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Hydropic degeneration

Moderate (++) 0

Aspartame Absent Mild (-) (+) 0 1

CR

Lesions

Soft drink Absent Mild (-) (+) 5 0

†

‡

Number of rats with lesions per total examined (n= 5 rats per group). Severity of lesions was graded by estimating the percentage area affected in the entire section. Lesion scoring: (0) absence of the lesion=

0%, (+) mild= 5-25%, (++) moderate= 26-50% and (+++) severe ≥ 50% of the examined tissue sections. - 27 -

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Figure 1

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Figure 2

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